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1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_game:

"Senet, found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials of Egypt, c. 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively, is the oldest board game known to have existed."

https://www.oldest.org/entertainment/board-games/:

"Senet is most likely the oldest known board game in the world. It was played in Ancient Egypt and game boards have been found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials dating as far back as 3500 BCE"

https://www.historyanswers.co.uk/ancient/the-biggest-party-in-history/:

" But the oldest board game known to man is a game called 'Senet.' Senet was played in Predynastic Egypt, dating it to around 3100 BC"

https://gamecows.com/history-of-board-games/:

2

Článek O. Rollefson - A Neolithic Board Game from Ain Ghazal, Jordan, publikovaný v Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research:

"The 1989 excavation season at the large Neolithic settlement at Ain Ghazal, Jordan, produced an object that differs from the mundane artifacts that normally obscure the individual residents they represent. A game board was foud in the fill just above the floor of an abandoned middle phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic C (PPNC) house, and based on a date from the 1984 season at the Ain Ghazal, can be dated to approximately 5870 ±240 b.c. (uncalibrated). It verifies that Neolithic people had laisure time to win or lose at game of chance or skill during "revolutionary" time in cultural development."

"The general design of the Ain Ghazal game board closely resembles mancala, a board game played throughout the Arab world (cf. Anon, 1990), and one of several versions of wari or oware, a game common across the African continent (Grunfeld 1975: 20-22)."

3

Článek O. Rollefson - A Neolithic Board Game from Ain Ghazal, Jordan, publikovaný v Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research:

"Kirkbride's excavations at Beidha yielded the first known Neolithic specimens of game boards (Kirkbride 1966: 34). They differ somewhat in de-tail from the `Ain Ghazal piece. Two broken and one complete game board were found in Level and a fourth was only partially exposed in Level VI. All four pieces have two parallel rows of de-pressions. The complete specimen from Level II has only four "cups" in each row, and the depres-sions in each are connected by a shallow groove that extends along the entire length of the long axis (Kirkbride 1966: fig. 8-1). The Level VI game board has the beginning of two parallel rows of de-pressions next to a single cup at the exposed end. Dating the Beidha game boards is problematic.

Seventeen radiocarbon dates have been published for the site, but they vary considerably within and between the archaeological levels (Weinstein 1984: 328-29). The oldest date from Level VI, for example, is 6990 ± 160 b.c. (uncalibrated), al-though assays on another sample produced three dates ranging from 6596 ± 100 to 6760 ± 130 b.c. One sample from Level IV yielded four dates spanning an interval from 7178 ± 103 to 6690 ± 160 b.c. Level II produced only a single radiocar-bon sample from which three dates were deter-mined that range from 7080 ± 50 to 6600 ± 160 b.c. Based on the averages of the dates for each level, Levels II and IV appear to be older than Level VI (which is the lowermost stratum), al-though the ranges for all of the strata overlap.

Another Neolithic game board has been re-ported from a layer dated to between 6300 and 5900 b.c. at Chagha Sefid in the Deh Luran region of western Iran. It is a broken gypsum slab, about one-half the size of the two complete Jordanian examples, with up to 13 holes ca. 1 cm deep and 1 cm in diameter. Although Hole states that it re-sembles the Beidha game board, there appear to be at least three rows of depressions (Hole 1977: 215; pl. 48-h). This suggests that if it is a game board, different rules pertained, perhaps resembling one of the more complex wari variants described by Zaslaysky (1973: 122-27)."

4

Tristan Donovan - It's All a Game: The History of Board Games from Monopoly to Settlers of Catan, 2017:

"The starkest evidence of this can be seen in how mancala games spread along slave trade routes. Oware, for example, came with the slaves taken from West Africa to the Caribbean, where they re-created the game's board in the soil. Much the same happened in East Africa under Omani rule in the seventeenth century. The slaves taken by the Omanis from Mozambique to Muscat brought with them a four-rowed mancala called njomba that they played in their homelands. Njomba spread from the slaves to the Omanis, who call it hawalis and still play it today. The Omanis also sold slaves to French colonists in the Seychelles, which led to njomba taking root there under the name "makonn.""

5

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toguz_korgol:

"The game is considered a national sport in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 organized players and about 200 official trainers in Kazakhstan alone."

6

Lech Pijanowski, Wojciech Pijanowski-Encyklopedie světových her, 2008:

"Abanga, adi, adji, adjiboto, adji-pre, adjito, aghada-ghada, adzua, agila, ayo, arbata-oskara, ambiddo, ayoayo, aware, aji, agsinnoninka, akwa nsa, ako akve, aringari, awari, akileysit, allaewala-kanda, aw-li, om-nam, ot-tjin, bonzo, bau, bahendagabo, bao kiswahili, bel, bosh, banya, beatta, bajangkaq, bao, biatta, baqura, cherrapunji, chonku, chato, chuncajon, córo, chonka, chuku, chiana wa kunja, chela, chisolo, chuba, chcoro, chiana wa bvalo...

A to je teprve začátek.

Darra, daramutu, dagboprou, derra, dakon, dagh, dara-dara, ebe, el arneb, ekwe, en dodoi, erherhe, en geshei ezu ahia ako okwe, fifanga, gue, gabata, galatjang, giuthi, guebeta, guehe, gabatta, gifia, gamma, guwoota, halusa, harang, huts, halusi, hus, ihisoro, i, isafuba, ichre, igori, i pere, ingilith, ikibaguzo, iyogh, ihtotoi, iyagbe, ise czn ekbe, jungka, jodu, jerin, jodorakase, kisolo, komari, kiarabu, karta, kpo, kale, koro, katra boaoaka, kara,  kiuthi, kiusu, khutka boia, kanj guti, kotu-baendum, kaloleh, kyngee, keya...

Budete ještě potřebovat trochu trpělivosti, protože to je sotva polovina.

Lib-al-ghashim, longbeu-a-cha, lib-najnuni, libat-iblis, lib-roseya, lok, lib-al-aqil, langa-holo, lib-hakimi, lela, lontuholo, leyla-gobale, membilfle, mbere, mbau, morahha, msuwa, mefuhra, msuwa wa kunja, mweisho, mad ji, mweiso, mekwmni, mbankak, mensyeb, mandali, mawkar katiya, moungala, mak khom, mancala, mam chongkak, mangala, ineyta, meuchoy, meulieh, mehiwa, matoe, mutingwano, mraantson, ndim-ndum, nyuvunu bouh ana yai, nah, njombwa, nsoli, nchombwa, natatu, nchuwa, nambichi, nahmudilakunze...

Chápu, je to nudné a nesrozumitelné, jenže ne vše, co se týká her, musí být plně pítelné a zajímavé. Takže pokračuji:

Ochi, okwe, ouri, obridjie, okusora, oura, ot-jin, poo pekl pachgerwa, pallankuli, puhul. tůni, pereauni, spreta, shimunana, sutě, sat-gol, sai, songo, shay o, sullusie, saddiqiya, til guti. tani, ti, togatog, tohi, tshuba, tsoro...

Už to opravdu nebude dlouho trvat.

Umheso, um-elbagara, uthi, um-el-banat, uugg, umheisho, um-eltuveisat, wet, woro, walu, ware, wari-wari, vai lungthlan, vora, quancebie, walah-pussa...

Nejsem si vůbec jist, zda je to opravdu všechno, ale nechci laskavé čtenáře unudit k smrti. takže to bude muset stačit.

Zde je ta potíž - prazvláštní a exotický slovník, který jsem výše citoval, není žádným slovníkem. Je to více než dvě stě názvů téže hry, která v našem jazyce název nemá a nikdy neměla. O této hře je ale třeba napsat a také ji v našem jazyce pojmenovat. Jak to ale udělat?

Nejsem znalcem jazyků užívaných v Súdánu, Nigérii, na Báli a na Madagaskaru. Nevím, jak hovoří obyvatelé Beninu, Angoly nebo Barbadosu. Vím ale, že tam všude a ještě v desítkách exotických koutů světa hrají hru, pro niž my název nemáme, ale spousta národů ano. Co třeba některý z nich, zvláště trefný nebo zvláště oblíbený, prostě přeložit?

Je to sice jednoduchý nápad, jenže nevede k jednoduchému řešení. Kouzelná hra, aneb závod mezi Amanranem a Esigiem, dvěma syny Oba Ozolueho - tak zní plný název této hry v Nigérii. Jinde je zase nazvána mnohem prostoji - čtyřka, dírky, zajíc. Je tady také kráva, kůzle, kočka, krabička, loď, také dům, kamínky, trh, mandle nebo také čtrnáct.

A pořád jde o tutéž hru, s neměnnými pravidly, ale s názvem velice proměnlivým. Čert a soustředění, jídlo u dvora a kamenný hrob - to vše je tatáž hra, opravdu arabská, hra učenců, myslící hra, Jenže také bláznivá hra, zároveň hra dcer, trpělivost, bitva, čísel.

Takže jsem se nenávratně utopil v exotice a etnografíi. Tak ať mě ta exotika s etnografíí zachrání. V dílech etnografů a antropologů, kteří se okrajově zajímají i o hry, jež jsou částí dějin či zvyků, se různé varianty hry, o níž je řeč, převážně zmiňují jako o "hrách typu mankala". Mankala pochází z arabského slova mangala, nagala - hýbat se. Je to jeden z názvů hry, dodnes používaný arabskými Beduíny - stejně dobrý jako každý jiný. Konečně tedy mankala, o které jsme se tolikrát zmiňovali."

7

https://www.wikiowl.com/en/wiki/Mancala:

"The word mancala (منقلة) comes from the Arabic word naqala (نقلة) meaning literally "to move". No one game exists with the name mancala; the name is a classification or type of game. This word is used in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, but is not consistently applied to any one game, and has been used for backgammon in the ancient near east. Mancala is a game that first appeared in Africa, and later, the ancient near east."

8

https://yudkowsky.net/rational/the-simple-truth/

9

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus:

"The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. Also Demosthenes (384 BC-322 BC) talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head."

10

Peter Shotwell - Go! More then a game, 2003:

"Since the days when the Greeks used pebbles to "calculate"-the word "calculus" is derived from calx ("gaming stones")-and the philosopher Thales drew his for- mulas on sandy beaches and probably abstracted logic from board game thinking, Western scientists have had a special fondness for games and game theory."

11

Vesna Bikić, Jasna Vuković -Board Games Reconsidered: Mancala in the Balkans, 2010:

"In analyzing the origin of mancala, an important topic, apart from the time and place of its origin, is its connection and similarity to methods of divination - geomancy. Divination implies two key factors: unpredictability and chance. Playing mancala includes both of these elements: an element of chance is reflected in the fact that the player does not have any influence on the distribution of the counters, except when choosing the cupmark for the initial move and choosing the direction for the act of "sowing"; and the element of unpredictability is reflected in the inability to precisely predict the appearance of the entire board after the counters are redistributed by the end of the move. This indicates that the forerunner of "ancestral"mancala were activities related to divination, which had been carried out in the same manner (Eagle 2000, 52).

Divination can be performed by striking the sand with a stick - in Arab khatt al-raml, which literally means "art of drawing lines in sand" (Binsbergen1997), or darb al-raml - striking the sand with a stick so that a random number of holes could be produced (Binsbergen 1996-1997, 226). Regardless of how the divination is performed, the consequence is the rows of figures (usually four) of which each consists of one or two dots; there are 16 combinations. Their reading is performed according to some memorized or written key (Binsbergen 1997; Binsbergen 1996-1997, 229).

The characteristic move in mancala implies the act of "sowing" the counters from one cupmark onto another and emptying the cupmark which is opposite to the one in which the sowing ends. This kind of elimination is typical of geomancy. Usually, it begins with many elements (pebbles, seeds, etc.) distributed randomly, after which the procedure of elimination starts, which reduces the amount of elements to one or two, so the quantity can be counted as even or uneven, i.e., 1 or 2 dots in four rows, which make a geomantic figure (Binsbergen 1997; Eglash 1997, 115). This link between mancala and geomancy is especially evident in Zambia, where mancala is played with mungongo seeds, which are also used for geomantic divination. In geomancy, there is always a link with the cult of earth. Geomantic symbolism is much layered: there is the maternal, agricultural symbolism of the impenetrable and elusive, incomprehensible earth as the source of life; but there is also the symbolism of tangible earth, dust, pebbles as the humble origins of man and life in general (Binsbergen 1996-1997, 228). In the "art of drawing lines in the sand", the "reader" (diviner) actually evokes several transformations of space through which the surroundings are transformed into a piece of cultivated land: by confining (setting the boundaries), clearing away trees, ploughing land, irrigation and harvesting (Binsbergen 1996-1997, 226)."

12

Vesna Bikić, Jasna Vuković -Board Games Reconsidered: Mancala in the Balkans, 2010:

"Mancala is, mainly, a game of adult men: this has been confirmed, among other places, in Uganda, in the Maasai and Bukuso tribes (Driedger 2001). Women were mainly left out of the games. The reason for this was, probably, for protecting the prestige of men, because if a woman or child publicly beat a man in a game, it would have been considered as a great embarrassment. It was forbidden to uninitiated boys, and children were generally dissuaded from playing, because that would have brought misfortune to the village. (Popova 1976, 440). Mancala was played during the period of the initiation of boys, for example in Congo, and then it had an educational role, symbolically admonishing the social values that needed to be respected. (Townshend 1979, 74). In some communities, like in the case of the Kikuyu, boys were allowed to play mancala, but only while looking after the goats (Dreidger 2001). In Asia, the situation was somewhat different: women mainly played in India (Claus 1987), in the Maldives some variations of mancala were played only by women and children, in the house only (de Voogt 1999, 108), and on Java solely young girls, members of nobility and mancala is considered exclusivelyto be a women's name. This distinction in relation to the situation in Africa is explained by the fact that mancala arrived in those parts somewhat later, when playing mancala had lost its symbolic meaning, thanks to Arab traders who first established contact with the local nobility. The symbolic meaning is lost even in the native land of mancala, so women now play it too.

Mancala is played during the day, because the night is reserved for the activities of the spirits, ancestors and divinities. If someone played it at night, it is believed that he would become ill or mad, or even die, and that the spirits would take his soul. However, if the game is linked to some ritual, for example, a burial, playing mancala at night is allowed; then it is not played for entertainment, but to deter and appease the ghosts of the deceased and other evil spirits (Popova 1976, 440).

Mancala is usually linked to different festivities, ceremonies and rituals. The future chief is often chosen by playing mancala. So, in the Ganda tribe on the north and west coasts of Victoria Lake, choosing the kabake, i.e. the king, was performed by playing a game of mancala. The candidate had to play a game with seeds, which he had picked from a specific tree, so his co -players would not outwit him (Townshend 1979, 74). Chaplin reports on a conflict between two chiefs in Zambia, which was resolved by playing mancala (Chaplin 1956, 168). Among other things, this shows that knowing how to play mancala is equal to being competent in another field and is an achievement in the acceptable social norms, which inevitably leads to the belief that the winner is somehow in favor of the gods or ancestors (Townshend 1979, 74).

The best opportunities for playing mancala are funerals, weddings, during isolation that precedes the initiation of boys, the girls' first menstrual cycle (Townshend 1979, 75), and what should be especially emphasized is its link with funeral customs. In Indonesia, playing mancala is considered to be a taboo in all occasions except during the period of mourning, after the death of a beloved,8 during the wake and the ceremonies related to burials in Dutch Guiana (Binsbergen 1997) etc.

Mancala is also played in order to invoke rain or stimulate the growth of vegetation: that is why the best time for playing it is during a drought; and during the rainy season, it is forbidden to use seeds as counters (Popova 1976, 440). The Kanakura tribe from North Nigeria plays games with cupmarks in the sand during annual celebrations related to the end of a millet harvest, in September or October (Binsbergen 1997). In Sri Lanka, it is played during Ramadan and for New Year's (de Voogt 2000, 94), and in India in the period between the sowing and harvesting of rice (Claus 1987)."